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Scientists harness AI to reveal forces behind glacier surges

Charles Ferrer — Thu, 05 Mar 2026 22:12:42 +0000

Scientists harness AI to reveal forces behind glacier surges Charles Ferrer Thu, 03/05/2026 - 15:12

Charles Ferrer

Ute Herzfeld (PI), Harald Sandal (pilot), Gustav Svanstroem (helicopter technician) and Matthew Lawson (research assistant) during the Negribreen Glacier System Airborne Geophysical campaign (Photo Credit: Thomas Trantow).

Glaciers are constantly changing and reshaping the Earth’s surface.

��Ҵ�ý�ƽ�� researchers have developed a new machine learning tool to better understand how Arctic glaciers suddenly accelerate or “surge”.

The team, led by Ute Herzfeld, a research professor in the Department of Electrical, Computer and Energy Engineering, created an open-source cyberinfrastructure called GEOCLASS-image, designed to decode the physical processes behind glacier motion using high-resolution satellite imagery and machine learning.

Glacier surges are sudden bursts of movement in otherwise slow-flowing ice.

Normally, glaciers move at a steady pace, but during a rare “surge”, that rate can accelerate up to 200 times faster than usual. The ice fractures into deep crevasses and pushes large volumes of ice toward the ocean. These dramatic events provide scientists with new insight into the unpredictable drivers of sea-level rise.

“Most deep machine learning systems don’t know what to look for in images,” said Herzfeld, who is also the director of the Geomathematics, Remote Sensing and Cryospheric Sciences Laboratory. “We have built a system that understands the physics of ice deformation, so the classifications actually mean something.”

Understanding how a glacier surges

Unlike traditional artificial intelligence systems that often struggle to interpret complex natural phenomena, the team created a new neural network approach—VarioCNN—to better understand glacial acceleration.

“Surging glaciers are one of the deep uncertainties in sea-level rise projections,” Herzfeld said. “They can move much faster than normal and current earth system models do not yet have the ability to account for them.”

To tackle this problem, Herzfeld and her team merged two powerful approaches: a deep convolutional neural network (CNN), common in the field of computer science and remote sensing and a physics-informed neural network model that captures how crevasses in the ice form, widen and intersect during motion.

“Think of neural networks as Lego blocks,” Herzfeld said. “We’ve taken some from physically informed models, some from deep learning and built a new kind of AI that’s meaningful.”

Putting AI to the test

The team tested their approach on a real-world event: the unexpected 2016 surge of Negribreen, a glacier located in the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard a 1,000 km south of the North Pole.

This isn’t just another AI model but one that understands the physics of glacial acceleration.
~Ute Herzfeld

Using Maxar WorldView satellite imagery collected in 2016-2018, the researchers tracked subtle changes across the glacier’s surface with remarkable detail.

They discovered that crevasse patterns, which change dramatically during a surge, hold information about surge dynamics that can be retrieved using their neural network approach.

One-dimensional crevasses appeared at the leading edge of the surge, while deeper within the surge area, complex patterns tell the story of the transformation and deformation of the ice, which can be of use in numerical modeling of the glacial acceleration.

Shear, a type of deformation that plays a key role in glacial acceleration, is easily misclassified in deep learning, but correctly identified using VarioCNN.

With their new VarioCNN model, they classified different types of crevasses from satellite images and used those patterns to interpret how the glacier moved and changed.

Results of the classification were then used to understand how the surge expanded and affected the entire Negribreen glacier system. Ultimately, ice mass equivalent to 1% of global annual sea-level rise transferred to the ocean.

Published in Remote Sensing, their results demonstrated how integrating physical knowledge into a neural network model, carried out at the computational level, can advance machine learning and glaciological understanding of glacier surges. The paper was selected as the cover story of Remote Sensing receiving record downloads during the first two weeks after publication.

Student Connor Meyers setting up a GPS station at the edge of Negribreen (Photo Credit: Ute Herzfeld).

“The problem of task-oriented machine learning is especially intriguing to me,” said Silas Twickler (Phys’25) who was a research assistant on the project. “While simply applying pre-existing neural networks may be sufficient for certain applications, the augmentation of these networks can allow for a drastic improvement in machine learning.”

AI for the geosciences

A major hurdle in applying machine learning to studying glaciers is the limited amount of labeled data. To overcome this, Herzfeld’s team developed a way that allows scientists to gradually refine the model using a relatively small number of hand-labeled satellite images.

VarioCNN was trained on just a few thousand of examples, far fewer than the 100,000 images than typical deep learning models require. Due to its modular design, the GEOCLASS cyberinfrastructure can be adapted to study other geophysical processes and potentially surfaces of other planets.

“Our tool is not just for glaciologists, but for anyone working with remote sensing and physical systems,” Herzfeld said. “Ultimately, we hope to give scientists better tools to understand how the Earth is changing.”

This research was funded by the National Science Foundation Office of Advanced Cyberinfrastructure and NASA Earth Sciences Division.

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Negribreen glacier during an ice surge in 2017 (Credit: Ute Herzfeld).

Researchers build ultra-efficient optical sensors shrinking light to a chip

Charles Ferrer — Mon, 23 Feb 2026 16:37:42 +0000

Researchers build ultra-efficient optical sensors shrinking light to a chip Charles Ferrer Mon, 02/23/2026 - 09:37

Charles Ferrer

Lu at the new electron beam lithography system used to develop microresonators at COSINC.

��Ҵ�ý�ƽ�� researchers have built high performing optical microresonators opening the door for new sensor technologies.

At its simplest form, a microresonator is a tiny device that can trap light and build up its intensity.

Once the intensity is high enough, researchers can perform unique light operations.

“Our work is about using less optical power with these resonators for future uses,” said Bright Lu, a fourth-year doctoral student in electrical and computer engineering and a lead author on the study. “One day these microresonators can be adapted for a wide range of sensors from navigation to identifying chemicals.”

For this endeavor published in Applied Physics Letters, the team focused on ‘racetrack’ resonators, named for their elongated shape that resembles a running track.

Specifically, researchers used ‘Euler curves’ — a type of smooth curve also found in road and railway design. Just as cars can’t make sharp right-angle turns in motion, light can not be forced into abrupt bends.

“These racetrack curves minimize bending loss,” said Won Park, Sheppard Professor of Electrical Engineering, a co-advisor on the study. “Our design choice was a key innovation of this project.”

By guiding light smoothly through the resonator, they dramatically reduced light loss, allowing photons to circulate longer and interact more strongly inside the device.

If too much light is lost, Lu says, high light intensities can’t be achieved for these microresonators to operate at the needed performance.

Made in Colorado

Incredibly small in size, the microresonators were built using the Colorado Shared Instrumentation in Nanofabrication and Characterization (COSINC) clean room’s new electron beam lithography system.

The facility provides a highly-controlled environment required to work at the microscopic scales that can lead to reliable device performance.

Optical waveguide microresonators on a chip created in this effort, which are ten times thinner than human hair.

Many optical and photonic devices are smaller than the width of a piece of paper, meaning even tiny dust particles or surface imperfections can disrupt how light travels through a material.

“Traditional lithography uses photons and is fundamentally limited by the wavelength of light,” Lu said. “However, electron beam lithography has no such constraint. With electrons, we can realize our structures with sub-nanometer resolution, which is critical for our microresonators.”

For Lu, the hands-on fabrication process was a fulfilling aspect of the project.

“Clean rooms are just cool and you’re working with these massive, precise machines and then you get to see images of structures you made only microns wide. Turning a thin film of glass into a working optical circuit is really satisfying.”

A key success from the work was the ability of the researchers to use chalcogenides, a broad term encompassing a family of specialized semiconductor glasses.

“These chalcogenides are excellent materials for photonics because of their high transparency and nonlinearity,” said Park. “Our work represents one of the best performing devices using chalcogenides, if not the best.”

Chalcogenides were helpful since they have strong transparency for light to pass through the device at high intensities needed for microresonators.

However, the materials are not easy to process for the device, so there’s a balancing act to tread.

“Chalcogenides are difficult, but rewarding materials to operate for photonic nonlinear devices,” said Professor Juilet Gopinath, who has worked on this project with Park for more than ten years. “Our results showed that minimizing the bend loss enables ultra-low loss devices comparable to state-of-the-art in other materials platforms.”

Measuring light at the microscale

Erikson with the optical setup for capturing data measuring absorption and thermal effects.

Once fabricated, the microresonators were handed off for testing, work led by James Erikson, a physics PhD student specializing in laser-based measurements. He carefully aligned lasers with microscopic waveguides, coupling light into and out of the device while monitoring how it behaved inside.

They looked for ‘dips’ within the data in transmitted light that indicate resonance as photons get trapped. By analyzing the shape of those dips, they were able to extract properties like absorption and thermal effects.

“The most obvious indicator of device quality is the shape of the resonances and we want them to be deep and narrow, like a needle piercing through the signal background,” said Erikson. “We’ve been chasing this kind of resonator for a long time, and when we saw the sharp resonances on this new device we knew right away that we’d finally cracked the code.”

Erikson added, to make a good device you need to know how much light will be absorbed versus transmitted. Thermal effects become important when adding laser power as you run the risk of damaging the device.

“The way most materials interact with light also changes depending on the temperature of the material,” said Erikson, “so as a device heats up its properties can change and cause it to work differently.”

In the future, the microresonators could be used for compact microlasers, advanced chemical and biological sensors and even tools for quantum metrology and networking.

“Many photonic components from lasers, modulators and detectors are being developed and microresonators like ours will help tie all of those pieces together,” said Lu. “Eventually, the goal is to build something you could hand to a manufacturer and create hundreds of thousands of them.”

��Ҵ�ý�ƽ�� researchers have built high performing optical microresonators opening the door for new sensor technologies. In the future, the microresonators could be used for compact microlasers, advanced chemical and biological sensors and even tools for quantum metrology and networking.

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The fabrication cleanroom facility provides state-of-the-art instrumentation including lithography, thin-film deposition and among others. (Credit: COSINC)

Erickson, Anderson elected to National Academy of Engineering

Charles Ferrer — Fri, 13 Feb 2026 22:20:07 +0000

Erickson, Anderson elected to National Academy of Engineering Charles Ferrer Fri, 02/13/2026 - 15:20

Dana Anderson and Bob Erickson are among the 130 scientists and engineers from around the country who will be inducted as members of the NAE at a meeting this fall.

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How one engineering alum optimizes clean energy operations before they break

Charles Ferrer — Thu, 05 Feb 2026 23:04:05 +0000

How one engineering alum optimizes clean energy operations before they break Charles Ferrer Thu, 02/05/2026 - 16:04

Charles Ferrer

When Aoife Henry isn't leading her energy optimization company, she enjoys trail running wherever she goes.

Aoife Henry (PhDElEngr‘24) is optimizing technology for wind and solar energy operations.

The doctoral graduate is leading Zentus, a startup she founded that addresses a critical challenge in the energy sector: how to prevent costly equipment failures that can bring wind and solar farms offline without warning.

Her solution uses machine learning to forecast when and how defects in wind turbine blades and solar panels will develop, notifying operators to plan repairs proactively rather than react to emergencies.

“We’re trying to model how defects like cracks on blades will develop and impact power output so operators can prepare proactively,” said Henry. “Spontaneous failures are incredibly expensive.”

The stakes are particularly high for offshore wind installations, where Henry sees the greatest market opportunity. Repairs cost approximately $250,000 per day, individual turbine blades run around $6 million and complete turbines cost about $20 million. For solar energy, they are maximizing the maintenance of solar panels to limit how much time they spend offline. The less time panels are offline, the more power can be generated.

For operators managing these massive technologies, the ability to anticipate maintenance needs could translate to millions in savings while improving energy reliability.

Zentus currently offers two key capabilities: categorizing defects and assigning risk scores and forecasting how those defects will impact power generation. These tools will help engineering teams decide whether to repair, replace or simply monitor equipment within specific weather conditions.

Currently, Zentus is running three pilot programs, two in the United States and one in the United Kingdom. They aim to launch their product commercially later this year while actively fundraising to support continued development.

From ��Ҵ�ý�ƽ�� to Silicon Valley

After participating in the Ascent Deep Tech Accelerator, a ��Ҵ�ý�ƽ�� program that helps university researchers commercialize their technologies, Henry landed a fellowship with the Stanford Sustainability Accelerator at the Stanford Doerr School of Sustainability.

Launched in September 2024, the Stanford accelerator supports early-career scientists working to translate sustainability research into real-world impact. The program provides fellows with research and development funding.

Aoife Henry and her fiancé, Zach Schwartz, currently an ecology and evolutionary biology PhD candidate at ��Ҵ�ý�ƽ��.

“I had a great advisor, Professor Lucy Pao, who always kept an eye out for opportunities,” said Henry. “��Ҵ�ý�ƽ�� helped me build a strong application through programs like Venture Partners and the NSF I-Corps.”

After defending her dissertation, Henry drove straight to California and assembled a five-person team, including a ��Ҵ�ý�ƽ�� master’s student she had previously worked with.

Henry’s commitment to clean energy was shaped throughout her entire academic trajectory. After completing her master’s degree, she received offers from three PhD programs but chose ��Ҵ�ý�ƽ�� specifically for its wind energy research. On top of that, Henry won first place in the 2025 Three Minute Thesis competition on campus for her talk titled, Directing Wind Turbines with Foresight: The Shepherd and the Sheepdog Find a Crystal Ball.

“There’s no doubt clean energy will always matter,” she said. “We’re not going back to a de-electrified world and we can’t reach carbon reduction targets without transforming the electricity industry.”

While Zentus launched with a focus on wind turbines and solar panels, the company is already expanding its work on storage systems.

Energy storage is essential for renewable energy because weather-dependent sources like solar and wind require support to keep supply and demand balanced on the electric grid.

While lithium-ion batteries currently dominate due to cost advantages, Henry notes that longer-duration storage technologies and solutions continue to emerge.

“Our team has strong backgrounds in wind, storage and renewable systems,” said Henry. “In the long term, we hope to apply our tools to energy storage to reduce downtime and costs.”

As climate challenges accelerate and the world leverages renewable energy, innovations like those emerging from Zentus will be key to building a reliable, sustainable power infrastructure.

“Contribution is a core value of mine whether it’s to the planet and people. I want to contribute to the clean energy transition and our work of improving the reliability of renewables and energy storage supports that mission.”

Aoife Henry (PhDElEngr‘24) is optimizing technology for wind and solar energy operations. The graduate is leading Zentus, a startup she founded that addresses a critical challenge in the energy sector: how to prevent costly equipment failures that can bring wind and solar farms offline without warning.

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Inside the Internship: Kylie Auerbach, Texas Instruments

Charles Ferrer — Fri, 30 Jan 2026 17:59:21 +0000

Inside the Internship: Kylie Auerbach, Texas Instruments Charles Ferrer Fri, 01/30/2026 - 10:59

Electrical engineering student, Kylie Auerbach (ElEngr'26), stepped into the fast-paced world of semiconductor technology as a systems marketing engineer intern at Texas Instruments.

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Inside the Internship: Gabriel Wardall, Lockheed Martin Space

Charles Ferrer — Mon, 26 Jan 2026 19:17:50 +0000

Inside the Internship: Gabriel Wardall, Lockheed Martin Space Charles Ferrer Mon, 01/26/2026 - 12:17

Gabriel Wardall (ElEng'26) has used his experience and expertise from all aspects of life to gain career success. Wardall interned with Lockheed Martin's Deep Space Exploration division for the past four years as an electrical engineer technician.

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An earthquake on a chip: New tech generates tiny waves, could make smartphones smaller, faster

Charles Ferrer — Wed, 14 Jan 2026 21:32:04 +0000

An earthquake on a chip: New tech generates tiny waves, could make smartphones smaller, faster Charles Ferrer Wed, 01/14/2026 - 14:32

A team of engineers has developed a new device that works like a laser but, instead of light, generates incredibly small vibrations called surface acoustic waves.

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ECEE welcomes new faculty for spring 2026

Charles Ferrer — Wed, 07 Jan 2026 15:43:41 +0000

ECEE welcomes new faculty for spring 2026 Charles Ferrer Wed, 01/07/2026 - 08:43

Charles Ferrer

ECEE at ��Ҵ�ý�ƽ�� is welcoming three new faculty members including Assistant Professor Logan Horowitz and and Assistant Professor Gonzalo Constante Flores. Additionally, award-winning physicist Matt Eichenfield, the inaugural Karl Gustafson Endowed Chair of Quantum Engineering, joined this semester.

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Engineers develop real-time membrane imaging for sustainable water filtration

Charles Ferrer — Tue, 16 Dec 2025 15:49:56 +0000

Engineers develop real-time membrane imaging for sustainable water filtration Charles Ferrer Tue, 12/16/2025 - 08:49

Charles Ferrer

Observed 3D volume calcium sulfate and calcium bicarbonate crystal growth (Credit: Lange Simmons)

��Ҵ�ý�ƽ�� researchers have introduced a solution to improving the performance of large-scale desalination plants: stimulated Raman scattering (SRS).

Published Dec. 16 in the journal Environmental Science & Technology, the laser-based imaging method allows researchers to observe in real time membrane fouling, a process where unwanted materials such as salts, minerals and microorganisms accumulate on filtration membranes.

Worldwide, 55% of people experience water scarcity at least one month a year and that number is expected to climb to 66% by the end of the century.

Desalination—turning saltwater into fresh water—is critical for communities globally as demand increases.

Modern reverse osmosis (RO) plants make up about 80% of the world’s desalination facilities, placing greater importance on having them run efficiently.

“Reverse osmosis membranes are critical for desalination,” said Juliet Gopinath, professor of electrical, computer and energy engineering and physics. “Our work aims to monitor and provide early warning for membrane fouling.”

RO systems rely on thin polymer membranes to filter out buildup.

A set of three real-time, in-situ calcium sulfate crystal scaling images. The growth of three unique crystal morphologies over time emphasizes the importance of having both the image along side the chemical identification that stimulated Raman spectroscopy provides. (Credit: Lange Simmons and Jasmine Andersen)

This accumulation reduces filtration efficiency and increases both energy use and operating costs for desalination plants.

Detecting fouling early remains one of the biggest challenges in desalination.

“We can learn a lot about materials and molecules by shining light on them,” said Postdoctoral Researcher Jasmine Andersen. “Depending on the type of light you use, you’ll get different light coming back, and that tells you what’s inside the material.”

This principle underlies Raman scattering, where the color—or wavelength—of the scattered light shifts in ways that reveal a material’s molecular structure and composition.

The team used SRS to observe crystal growth on RO membranes, tracking how the molecules vibrated revealing the chemical makeup of the material.

To test the system, researchers observed calcium sulfate and calcium bicarbonate, ions commonly found in seawater. SRS provided both high-speed imaging and chemical identification.

“Watching these crystals form as it happens, getting volumetric data and identifying the chemical all at once is pretty exciting,” Andersen said. “Previously, you could get volume data or chemical identification, but not at the same time.”

Andersen notes this level of insight is something industry tools cannot currently provide.

Supporting sustainable water systems

Understanding what forms on a membrane and when can help operators maximize filtration, notes Professor Emeritus Alan Greenberg, an expert in membrane performance and characterization.

“It is well known that RO desalination plants can be more productive and operate at lower cost if fouling is reduced and cleaning is more efficient,” Greenberg said.

Beyond calcium sulfate, the team expects SRS could help study more complex mixtures of organic, inorganic and biological materials that contribute to fouling in both seawater and brackish water systems.

“As our freshwater resources shrink, we’re going to rely more on desalination,” Andersen said. “If we can make that process more efficient and sustainable, we can help ensure people have reliable access to clean water.”

Key collaborators on this project included Victor Bright, professor of mechanical engineering; Y. Lange Simmons physics doctoral graduate; and Mo Zohrabi, senior research scientist. This project received funding from the Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy, the National Science Foundation and a ��Ҵ�ý�ƽ�� Research and Innovation Seed Grant.

��Ҵ�ý�ƽ�� researchers have developed a laser-based imaging method called stimulated Raman scattering to improve the performance of desalination plants by allowing real-time detection of membrane fouling. The advance could help make desalination more efficient and reliable as global demand for clean water rises.

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Tiny new device could enable giant future quantum computers

Charles Ferrer — Thu, 11 Dec 2025 16:33:05 +0000

Tiny new device could enable giant future quantum computers Charles Ferrer Thu, 12/11/2025 - 09:33

Charles Ferrer

Researchers have made a major advance in quantum computing with a new device that is nearly 100 times smaller than the diameter of a human hair.

Published in the journal Nature Communications, the breakthrough optical phase modulators could help unlock much larger quantum computers by enabling efficient control of lasers required to operate thousands or even millions of qubits — the basic units of quantum information.

Optical chip developed in the study with laser light from an optical fiber array. (Credit: Jake Freedman)

Critically, the team of scientists have developed these devices using scalable manufacturing, avoiding complex, custom builds in favor of those used to make the same technology behind processors already found in computers, phones, vehicles, home appliances — virtually everything powered by electricity and even toasters.

Led by Jake Freedman, an incoming PhD student in the Department of Electrical, Computer & Energy Engineering; Matt Eichenfield, professor and the Karl Gustafson Endowed Chair in Quantum Engineering; and collaborators from Sandia National Laboratories, including co-senior author Nils Otterstrom, they created a device that is not only tiny and powerful, but also practical and inexpensive to mass-produce.

Their device uses microwave-frequency vibrations, oscillating billions of times per second, to manipulate laser light with extraordinary precision.

These ultra-fast vibrations give researchers direct control over the phase of a laser beam, allowing the chip to generate new laser frequencies with high stability and efficiency, all essential for building quantum computing, quantum sensing and quantum networking technologies.

Why quantum computers depend on precise optical frequency control

3D rendering of the device including the optical waveguide, piezoelectric actuator and metal routing layers essential for quantum computing. (Credit: Jake Freedman)

Among the leading approaches to quantum computing are trapped-ion and trapped-neutral-atom systems, which store information in individual atoms.

To operate these qubits, researchers “talk” to each atom using precise laser beams, allowing them to give the instructions to do computations.

Each laser’s frequency must be tuned with extreme accuracy, often to within billionths of a percent or even smaller.

“Creating new copies of a laser with very exact differences in frequency is one of the most important tools for working with atom- and ion-based quantum computers,” Freedman said. “But to do that at scale, you need technology that can efficiently generate those new frequencies.”

Today, those frequency shifts are made using bulky table-top devices that consume significant amounts of microwave power.

Current setups work well for small lab experiments and quantum computers with small numbers of qubits, but they cannot scale to the tens or hundreds of thousands of optical channels required for future quantum computers.

“You’re not going to build a quantum computer with 100,000 bulk electro-optic modulators sitting in a warehouse full of optical tables,” Eichenfield said. “You need some much more scalable ways to manufacture them that don’t have to be hand-assembled and with long optical paths. While you’re at it, if you can make them all fit on a few small microchips and produce 100 times less heat, you’re much more likely to make it work.”

The device can generate new frequencies of light through efficient phase modulation that consumes roughly 80 times less microwave power than many commercial modulators.
Using less power reduces heat and allows many more channels to be placed close together, even on a single chip.

Together, these features turn the chip into a powerful, scalable system for managing the complex dance that atoms must perform to make quantum computations.

Built using the world’s most scalable manufacturing technology

One of the most significant aspects of the project is that it was produced entirely in a "fab" or foundry, the same type of facility used to make advanced microelectronics.

“CMOS fabrication is the most scalable technology humans have ever invented,” Eichenfield said.

“Every microelectronic chip in every cell phone or computer has billions of essentially identical transistors on it. So, by using CMOS fabrication, in the future, we can produce thousands or even millions of identical versions of our photonic devices, which is exactly what quantum computing will need.”

According to Otterstorm, they’ve taken modulator devices which were previously expensive and power hungry and made them more efficient and less bulky.

“We’re helping to push optics into its own ‘transistor revolution’, moving away from the optical equivalent of vacuum tubes and towards scalable integrated photonic technologies,” Otterstorm said.

The team is now developing fully integrated photonic circuits that combine frequency generation, filtering and pulse-carving on the same chip, bringing the goal of a complete operational chip closer to reality.

Moving forward, they will collaborate with quantum computing companies to test versions of these chips inside state-of-the-art of trapped-ion and trapped-atom quantum computers.

“This device is one of the final pieces of the puzzle,” Freedman said. “We’re getting close to a truly scalable photonic platform capable of controlling very large numbers of qubits.”

This project was supported by the U.S. Department of Energy through the Quantum Systems Accelerator program, a National Quantum Initiative Science Research Center.

Researchers have developed a device that can precisely control laser light using a fraction of the power and space required today. Because it can be manufactured just like modern microchips, this tiny device could unlock quantum computers capable of solving problems far beyond the reach of today’s technologies.

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Top-down image of the on-chip phase-modulator devices taken with a microscope. (Credit: Andrew Leenheer)

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Top-down image of the on-chip phase-modulator devices taken with a microscope. (Credit: Andrew Leenheer)