Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH)

Preventive Actions and Risk Culture Are Key Drinking Water Microbial Risk Management Indicators: Evidence from Canadian Stakeholders

Prakriti Sardana — Tue, 01 Jul 2025 18:12:29 +0000

Preventive Actions and Risk Culture Are Key Drinking Water Microbial Risk Management Indicators: Evidence from Canadian Stakeholders Prakriti Sardana Tue, 07/01/2025 - 12:12 Emma Wells , Amy Javernick-Will

Risk management systems are increasingly implemented by drinking water utilities to prevent contamination events. While some Canadian provinces have mandated these systems, evaluating their success remains challenging due to uncertainty about which indicators accurately reflect risk management effectiveness across different regulatory approaches. This study explores perceptions of appropriate risk management indicators through interviews with 21 drinking water regulators and utility staff from four Canadian provinces with varied regulations. Using inductive and deductive qualitative analysis, we found that regulatory compliance, while vital for public health protection, was universally perceived as an insufficient standalone indicator due to limited risk coverage and context-specificity. Respondents identified preventive measures in the themes of─risk assessment, control barriers, and preventive maintenance─as more accurate indicators because they demonstrate proactive identification and mitigation of potential risks. However, respondents emphasized that these indicators must be interpreted through the lens of utility motivation and risk culture. Crucially, understanding risk culture among frontline operational staff emerged as essential for discerning risk management quality, highlighting the importance of better supporting these personnel in their critical role of protecting public health.

Wells, E. F., Fuller, M., Javernick-Will, A. N., & Linden, K. G. (2025). Preventive Actions and Risk Culture Are Key Drinking Water Microbial Risk Management Indicators: Evidence from Canadian Stakeholders. ACS ES&T Water.

Wells, E. F., Fuller, M., Javernick-Will, A. N., & Linden, K. G. (2025). Preventive Actions and Risk Culture Are Key Drinking Water Microbial Risk Management Indicators: Evidence from Canadian Stakeholders. ACS ES&T Water.

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Facilitators and Barriers of Global Water Reuse: A Systematic Literature Review

Prakriti Sardana — Wed, 25 Dec 2024 18:55:46 +0000

Facilitators and Barriers of Global Water Reuse: A Systematic Literature Review Prakriti Sardana Wed, 12/25/2024 - 11:55 Prakriti Sardana , Amy Javernick-Will

Centralized municipal water reuse implementation, particularly potable reuse, remains slow despite the need in many global locations to supplement conventional water supplies. Analyzing factors associated with implementation can enhance our understanding of successful water reuse design and implementation. We conducted a systematic analysis of 232 peer-reviewed journal articles on water reuse implementation, identifying and classifying influential factors as facilitators or barriers to success. The most cited facilitators included clearly defined and feasible regulations, public education and awareness programs, and drought conditions. Next, we analyzed case-level data by examining the relationships between factors, implementation outcome, and end use (potable vs nonpotable). The literature enabled analysis of 47 cases with data from 44 articles. When analyzing factor co-occurrence within similar cases (e.g., successful nonpotable cases), several unique combinations of factors resulted in implementation success (e.g., fostering partnerships with the industrial/agricultural sectors and increasing organizational capacity by improving existing infrastructure). Our analysis highlights preliminary recommendations for implementation success, as well as for future research to systematically collect data across cases. These recommendations will help to better understand the relative importance of each factor and causal relationships between factors, to ultimately identify comprehensive strategies for successful implementation.

Sardana, P., Javernick-Will, A., & Cook, S. M. (2024). Facilitators and Barriers of Global Water Reuse: A Systematic Literature Review. ACS ES&T Water, 5(1), 3-19.

Sardana, P., Javernick-Will, A., & Cook, S. M. (2024). Facilitators and Barriers of Global Water Reuse: A Systematic Literature Review. ACS ES&T Water, 5(1), 3-19. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsestwater.4c00778

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Characterizing modern bathrooms to support sanitation adoption

Anonymous — Tue, 22 Aug 2023 00:00:00 +0000

Characterizing modern bathrooms to support sanitation adoption Anonymous (not verified) Mon, 08/21/2023 - 18:00 Rebecca Ventura , Amy Javernick-Will

Sanitation programming success depends on users being satisfied with the proposed sanitation system and bathroom design. Past studies have described some households being dissatisfied with their current bathrooms and unwilling to accept a new bathroom because it is not modern; however, few studies have investigated how households define modern. To best support households in adopting improved sanitation infrastructure, or infrastructure that hygienically separates human waste from human contact, there is a need to understand characteristics associated with modern bathrooms and if modern encompasses more than the sanitation infrastructure. This study systematically identified characteristics associated with modern bathrooms across multiple sanitation infrastructure types. 305 households near Cascas, Peru, an area with diverse bathroom designs that have unimproved and improved sanitation infrastructure access, were surveyed to capture perceptions of modern. Results demonstrate that households often perceive a modern bathroom as one with a sitting-style toilet, a sink, and a shower. Most households did not associate sanitation infrastructure type with their definition of modern; however, all modern bathrooms had improved sanitation infrastructure. Future work should expand and test this definition of modern in other contexts to support future adoption of improved sanitation.

Ventura, R., Javernick-Will, A., and N. Gonzales. (2023). “Characterizing modern bathrooms to support sanitation adoption”. Journal of Water, Sanitation & Hygiene for Development. 10.2166/washdev.2023.034/97035.

Ventura, R., Javernick-Will, A., and N. Gonzales. (2023). Journal of Water, Sanitation & Hygiene for Development. 10.2166/washdev.2023.034/97035.

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Study design and baseline to evaluate water service provision among peri-urban communities in Kasai Oriental, Democratic Republic of the Congo

Anonymous — Thu, 13 Apr 2023 00:00:00 +0000

Study design and baseline to evaluate water service provision among peri-urban communities in Kasai Oriental, Democratic Republic of the Congo Anonymous (not verified) Wed, 04/12/2023 - 18:00

We present a study design and baseline results to establish the impact of interventions on peri-urban water access, security and quality in Kasai Oriental province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. In standard development practice, program performance is tracked via monitoring and evaluation frameworks of varying sophistication and rigor. Monitoring and evaluation, while usually occurring nearly concurrently with program delivery, may or may not measure parameters that can identify performance with respect to the project’s overall goals. Impact evaluations, often using tightly controlled trial designs and conducted over years, challenge iterative program evolution. This study will pilot an implementation science impact evaluation approach in the areas immediately surrounding 14 water service providers, at each surveying 100 randomly-selected households and conducting water quality assessments at 25 randomly-selected households and five water points every three months. We present preliminary point-of-collection and point-of-use baseline data. This study is utilizing a variety of short- and medium-term monitoring and impact evaluation methods to provide feedback at multiple points during the intervention. Rapid feedback monitoring will assess the continuity of water services, point-of-consumption and point-of-collection microbial water quality, household water security, household measures of health status, ability and willingness to pay for water and sanitation service provision, and service performance monitoring. Long-term evaluation will focus on the use of qualitative comparative analysis whereby we will investigate the combination of factors that lead to improved water access, security and quality.

Kirsch, K.*, Nagel, C., Iribagiza, C., Ecklu, J., Akonkwa Zawadi, G., Mugaruka Ntabaza, P., Barstow, C., Lund, A., Harper, J., Carlton, E., Javernick-Will, A., Linden, K., and E. Thomas, (2023). “Study design and baseline to evaluate water service provision among peri-urban communities in Kasai Oriental, Democratic Republic of the Congo”. PLOS One. 10.1371/journal.pone.0283019.

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Improving the reliability of water service delivery in rural Kenya through professionalized maintenance: a system dynamics perspective

Anonymous — Wed, 23 Nov 2022 00:00:00 +0000

Improving the reliability of water service delivery in rural Kenya through professionalized maintenance: a system dynamics perspective Anonymous (not verified) Tue, 11/22/2022 - 17:00 Pranav Chintalapati , Amy Javernick-Will

Reliable water service delivery continues to be a complex global issue that is particularly challenging in rural communities. Despite billions of dollars of infrastructure interventions, sustainable water services remain out of reach for millions of people. Professionalized maintenance services have emerged as a service provision strategy to supplement the community-based rural water management approach. This study applies system dynamics modeling to assess the potential impact of scaling up professionalized maintenance services on piped water systems in Kitui County, Kenya. The study results show that over a 10 year simulation, calibrated with 21 months of empirical data and based on a range of key assumptions, delivery of professionalized maintenance services across the county may increase countywide functionality rates from 54% to over 83%, leading to a 67% increase in water production. Furthermore, the increase in preventive maintenance activities and proactive repairs can lead to less frequent major breakdowns and reduction in county government spending on major repairs by over 60%. However, current service fee income from communities accounts for 8% of the total cost of service, necessitating substantial sustained external financing or government subsidies to be financially viable at scale.

Chintalapati, P., Nyaga, C., Walters, J., Koehler, J., Javernick-Will, A.; Hope, R.; Linden, K. (2022). “Improving the reliability of water service delivery in rural Kenya through professionalized maintenance: a system dynamics perspective”. Environmental Science and Technology. 10.1021/acs.est.2c00939

Chintalapati, P., Nyaga, C., Walters, J., Koehler, J., Javernick-Will, A.; Hope, R.; Linden, K. (2022). Environmental Science and Technology. 10.1021/acs.est.2c00939

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Mapping (mis)alignment within a collaborative network using homophily metrics

Anonymous — Wed, 21 Sep 2022 00:00:00 +0000

Mapping (mis)alignment within a collaborative network using homophily metrics Anonymous (not verified) Tue, 09/20/2022 - 18:00 Kimberly Pugel , Amy Javernick-Will

Collaborative approaches can overcome fragmentation by fostering consensus and connecting stakeholders who prioritize similar activities. This makes them a promising approach for complex, systemic problems such as lack of reliable, safe water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) services in low-income countries. Despite the touted ability of collaborative approaches to align priorities, there remains no comprehensive way to measure and map alignment within a network of actors. Methodological limitations have led to inconsistent guidance on if, and how much, alignment is needed around a common vision (e.g., universal, reliable access to WASH) and/or around an agreed set of activities (e.g. passing a bill to promote water scheme maintenance models). In this work, we first define alignment as the extent to which actors work with others who share priorities. We then develop and test a method that uses social network analysis and qualitative interview data to quantify and visualize alignment within a network. By investigating how alignment of two strong, well-functioning WASH collaborative approaches evolved over three years, we showed that while alignment on a common vision may be a defining aspect of collaborative approaches, some alignment around specific activities is also required. Collaborative approaches that had sub-groups of members that all prioritized the same activities and worked together were able to make significant progress on those activities, such as drafting and passing a county-wide water bill or constructing a controversial fecal sludge disposal site. Despite strong sub-group formation, networks still had an overall tendency for actors to work with actors with different prioritized activities. While this reinforces some existing knowledge about collaborative work, it also clarifies inconsistencies in theory on collaborative approaches, calls into question key aspects of network literature, and expands methodological capabilities.

Pugel, K., Javernick-Will, A., Nyaga, C., Dimtse, D., Mussa, M., Henry, L., and K. Linden. (2022). “Mapping (mis)alignment within a collaborative network using homophily metrics”. PLOS Water. 10.1371/journal.pwat.0000044

Pugel, K., Javernick-Will, A., Nyaga, C., Dimtse, D., Mussa, M., Henry, L., and K. Linden. (2022). PLOS Water. 10.1371/journal.pwat.0000044

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Multimethod Analysis of Factors for Reliable and Sustainable Rural Water Infrastructure Maintenance in Uganda

Anonymous — Wed, 27 Jul 2022 22:49:53 +0000

Multimethod Analysis of Factors for Reliable and Sustainable Rural Water Infrastructure Maintenance in Uganda Anonymous (not verified) Wed, 07/27/2022 - 16:49 Caleb Cord , Amy Javernick-Will , Karl Linden

Professionalized maintenance arrangements are growing throughout sub-Saharan Africa to improve rural water infrastructure functionality after decades of largely unsuccessful community-based management (CBM), but factors influencing their success are understudied. We used a multimethod approach to (1) identify influential factors on rural water system reliability and sustainability in the literature; (2) determine the most influential factors for professionalized maintenance through focus group discussions with a Ugandan maintenance provider’s technicians and field staff; and (3) identify statistically significant associations between these factors and breakdowns, downtime, and community maintenance contract status. Findings show that contract status, indicating consumer demand and payment, is influenced by service reliability, free repairs from NGOs, and the number of users. Handpump breakdowns are most likely during rainy seasons, when total downtime is longer for increasing distance from the maintenance provider’s nearest office, likely due to travel challenges. Based on compelling quantitative and qualitative evidence, we call for increased coordination among key actors for more successful professionalized maintenance provision. For example, aid actors such as NGOs must respect formal professionalized arrangements in the contexts where they work. Additionally, maintenance providers and their funders must ensure adequate resource availability to overcome travel challenges and ensure equitable service provision.

Cord, C., Fink, E., Javernick-Will, A., Mukanga, J., Bergeron, F., Harvey, A., & Linden, K. G. (2022). Multimethod Analysis of Factors for Reliable and Sustainable Rural Water Infrastructure Maintenance in Uganda. ACS ES&T Water.

Cord, C., Fink, E., Javernick-Will, A., Mukanga, J., Bergeron, F., Harvey, A., & Linden, K. G. (2022). ACS ES&T Water.

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Challenges and solutions to rural water service sustainability in East African countries: A ‘systems scaffolding’ perspective

Anonymous — Mon, 25 Jul 2022 22:57:52 +0000

Challenges and solutions to rural water service sustainability in East African countries: A ‘systems scaffolding’ perspective Anonymous (not verified) Mon, 07/25/2022 - 16:57 Jeffrey Walters , Nick Valcourt , Amy Javernick-Will , Karl Linden

This study maps and quantitatively analyzes the interaction of factors that drive (un)sustainable rural water service delivery in five regions across Ethiopia, Uganda, and Kenya by combining the knowledge and experience of 210 service delivery stakeholders, ranging from government officials, service providers and the private sector. We used semi-structured interview data combined with purposive text analysis and a suite of systems analysis tools to map and then structurally analyze leverage points within system maps that characterize challenges and solutions to sustainable rural water service delivery. The analysis of both challenge and solution system maps highlighted the need for more diversified planning and management frameworks centering on coordination, financing, and capacity building that can ‘scaffold’ effective operation and maintenance activities. The study also expands on a novel process for building and analyzing quantitative systems maps from qualitative interview data.

Walters, J., Valcourt, N., Linden, K., Javernick-Will, A., & Lockwood, H. (2022). Challenges and solutions to rural water service sustainability in East African countries: A ‘systems scaffolding’perspective. Environmental Science & Policy, 136, 564-574.

Walters, J., Valcourt, N., Linden, K., Javernick-Will, A., & Lockwood, H. (2022). Environmental Science & Policy, 136, 564-574.

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Sector Perspectives on the Attributes of System Approaches to Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene Service Delivery

Anonymous — Fri, 18 Mar 2022 23:10:25 +0000

Sector Perspectives on the Attributes of System Approaches to Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene Service Delivery Anonymous (not verified) Fri, 03/18/2022 - 17:10 Jeffrey Walters , Nick Valcourt , Amy Javernick-Will , Karl Linden

This study sought to coalesce sector knowledge on the use of systems approaches for sustainable water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) service delivery in low-income countries. To accomplish this objective, we remotely convened a panel of WASH sector experts within a multiround survey to identify, characterize, and prioritize the necessary attributes of WASH systems approaches. The first survey round asked experts to comment on the conceptual differences between traditional approaches and systems approaches to WASH. Emerging within responses from the first survey round were attributes of WASH systems (i.e., factors, actors) and attributes of WASH systems approaches (i.e., flexible, scalable). A three-round Delphi survey was then administered to reach consensus on these emerging attributes. By the final round of the Delphi, consensus was reached on every attribute of WASH systems, indicating alignment between the experts on the fundamental characteristics and implications of WASH systems. Consensus was also reached on the majority of attributes of WASH systems approaches, including the inherent interconnected and complex nature of WASH systems. However, consensus was not achieved on attributes related to mapping WASH system interconnections, convening stakeholders in collective action, and the appropriateness and feasibility of applying systems approaches at scale. This indicates a need for future research that explores practical and scalable tools and techniques to map and evaluate WASH system interactions, and ways to engage relevant actors in these approaches to collectively apply systems knowledge.

Walters, J. P., Valcourt, N., Javernick-Will, A., & Linden, K. (2022). Sector Perspectives on the Attributes of System Approaches to Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene Service Delivery. Journal of Environmental Engineering, 148(6), 05022002.

Walters, J. P., Valcourt, N., Javernick-Will, A., & Linden, K. (2022). Journal of Environmental Engineering, 148(6), 05022002.

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Institutional influences on local government support for professionalized maintenance of water supply infrastructure in rural Uganda: A qualitative analysis

Anonymous — Tue, 15 Feb 2022 06:00:00 +0000

Institutional influences on local government support for professionalized maintenance of water supply infrastructure in rural Uganda: A qualitative analysis Anonymous (not verified) Mon, 02/14/2022 - 23:00 Caleb Cord , Amy Javernick-Will , Karl Linden

Professionalized maintenance arrangements are emerging and growing to improve rural
water service sustainability across sub-Saharan Africa, where local governments often act
as rural service authorities. Uganda’s Ministry of Water and Environment released a novel
policy in 2019 to promote professionalization, outlining requirements of local governments
to support professionalized maintenance under a new framework for rural water service
delivery. We identify how responsibilities of local government actors shifted under this policy
and then use Organizational Institutional Theory to explore how the institutional environment—
composed of regulative, normative, and cultural-cognitive pillars—influences these
actors’ fulfillment of assigned functions under the new policy and support of professionalized
maintenance arrangements. To do this, we collected, transcribed, and qualitatively coded
data from semi-structured interviews with 93 Ugandan local government actors at all hierarchical
levels across 22 sub-counties in three Ugandan districts. Due to infrequent references
by interviewees to regulative influences on action such as formal rules and policies, we propose
that the new policy alone is unlikely to motivate essential local government support.
Allocated responsibilities must align with widely-cited normative and cultural-cognitive influences,
including relationship expectations, typical processes and routines, political dynamics,
notions of identity, perceived self-efficacy, and cultural beliefs. We recommend
leveraging existing institutional influences where possible to motivate actions aligned with
the policy. For example, local government actors can fulfill community expectations of them
to solve prolonged nonfunctionality by connecting communities to professionalized maintenance
service providers instead of performing individual out-of-pocket repairs. Improving
understanding of local service authority perspectives is essential as professionalized maintenance
arrangements emerge and grow and as new policies expand and shift essential
support functions.

Cord, C., Javernick-Will, A., Buhungiro, E., Harvey, A., & Linden, K. (2022). Institutional influences on local government support for professionalized maintenance of water supply infrastructure in rural Uganda: A qualitative analysis. PLOS Water, 1(2), e0000003.

Cord, C., Javernick-Will, A., Buhungiro, E., Harvey, A., & Linden, K. (2022). PLOS Water, 1(2), e0000003.

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